The drawing below illustrates a piece of dressed timber and some of the commonly used woodwork terms which are listed below.
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Length: The dimension which is measured in the direction of the wood fibres. The length is usually the longest dimension of the board. Width: Usually the largest dimension of the cross section of a board. Thickness: Usually the smaller dimension of the cross section of a piece of timber. |
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End Grain: The pattern formed in the cross section of a piece of timber by the growth rings and medullary rays.
Face Mark and Edge Mark: These are identification marks placed on the chosen face side and face edge of a piece of timber.
All marking tools are used from the face side and/or face edge when setting out.
With the Grain/Across the Grain: The term ‘with the grain’ refers to the direction of the fibres in the wood structure.
For example, a saw cut in the direction of the fibres is with the grain. This cut is usually called a rip cut.
A cross cut is one that is made across the direction of the wood fibres. Planing across the grain also refers to cutting across the direction of the wood fibres.
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The illustration on the right shows the likely effect of planing across the grain in the end of a piece of timber. Planing from both ends towards the centre can prevent the corner from breaking out. Straight Grain/Cross Grain: A piece of timber with straight grain has been milled or sawn parallel to the wood fibres. Cross grain occurs when the board has been sawn from the log at a slight angle to the wood fibres. |
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The illustrations below show the direction of wood fibres in pieces of timber with straight grain and cross grain.
Against the Grain: This term usually refers to planing a cross grained board by cutting against the lie of the wood fibres. The fibres tend to lift and break away instead of cutting cleanly.
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Planing against the grain of a piece of timber will usually result in a rough surface. This can generally be avoided by examining the workpiece and determining the lie of the wood fibres before commencing to plane the surface. The drawing on the left illustrates planing against the grain. When planing with the grain of a cross grained board the plane iron cuts the ends of the wood fibres cleanly leaving a smooth surface. |
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The following illustrations show some of the ways that edges can be shaped in woodworking for either decorative or structural purposes.
Before leaving this page, think of what you've just been reading, and test yourself with these questions.
[[ mm /f ][ Match the woodwork term with the definition: ][ Width ~ Largest dimension of the cross section ][ Thickness ~ The smaller dimension of the cross section of timber ][ Face mark ~ Identification marks placed on a chosen face side of a piece of timber ][ End grain ~ Pattern formed in the cross section by the growth rings and medullary rays ][ The width is the largest dimension and thickness the smallest dimension on a cross section, the face mark is the identification mark, and the end grain is the pattern made by growth rings. ]]
[[ tr /f ][ What type of grain is produced when the timber was sawn parallel to the wood fibres? ][ Straight ][ Straight grain wood has been milled or sawn parallel to the wood fibres. ]]
[[ sh ][ WOODWORK JOINTS ]]It is important for the woodworker to be able to construct a range of joints and to understand their advantages and disadvantages so the most appropriate joints can be incorporated in projects that are being designed.
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Butt joints are constructed very simply with one piece of timber cut perfectly square, then glued, butted against the other piece and fastened with nails or screws. The illustration on the right shows a butt joint fastened with screws and a corner or end butt joint fastened with nails. Nailing close to the end of a piece of timber may require pre-drilling if the timber has a tendency to split. Butt joints generally don’t need to be clamped because the screws or nails hold the joint together while the glue dries. |
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Housing joints provide more strength than butt joints and are often used where load bearing is an important design factor in the project under construction. For example, a shelf in a cupboard that is to be used to store heavy objects may be housed into the sides of a cupboard so it can carry more weight.
Through housings, as illustrated below left, are used in situations where it doesn’t matter if the joint is visible on the edge.
Stopped housings are generally used in a design where the appearance of the edge is important. The illustration below centre shows a stopped housing joint that would be used in timber framing.From the face edge the assembled joint would have the appearance of a butt joint. In other words, the housing is not visible.
Rebate housings are often called rebate and butt joints or sometimes end housing joints. Rebate housings are stronger than butt joints because they have two contact surfaces. When the joint is assembled both contact surfaces are glued. If necessary, the joint can be nailed two ways. Nails at right angles to each other hold the joint together in both directions.
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| Through Housing | Stopped Housing | Rebate Housing |
A true mitre is constructed by cutting both of the members to 45° and butt jointing these surfaces as illustrated below left. However, the term ‘mitre’ is often applied to joints where angles other than 45° are used.
Mitres are used to join the corners of picture frames and mouldings such as architraves around window and door openings as well as decorative mouldings on furniture.
Special corner clamps can be used to hold a mitred framing joint when nailing.
The illustration on the right shows a feathered mitre which is reinforced by a thin piece of wood glued into a saw cut.
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| Mitre | Feathered Mitre |
Halvings are simple joints in which half the thickness of the material is removed from each member, so that when the joint goes together the faces are flush.
When marking out halving joints it is very important to use face and edge marks. All gauging should be done from the face side.
For example, a slight error in setting the marking gauge to the centre of the thickness of the material will still result in a flush joint if both pieces are gauged from the face side.
All marking out should be accurate with lines squared from the face edge. Care must also be taken to saw on the waste side of the line. Waste material is removed using a firmer chisel and a mallet.
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T halving joints, as illustrated below, can be used in framing where mid-rails are required. These joints are sometimes called half checks. |
Corner halvings are often called end half checks. These joints are generally used in the corner of a frame. The illustration below shows a typical corner halving. |
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Cross halving joints are used where members of a frame or other structure intersect each other. These joints are sometimes called cross half checks. The illustration below shows a cross halving joint with checks cut on the flat. Another cross halving could be constructed with the checks cut on the edge. |
Dovetail halvings, as illustrated below, are used in preference to other halvings when a T joint is in tension in one direction. The dovetail shape, when properly fitted prevents the joint from being pulled apart in the direction of the member on which the dovetail is cut. |
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Bridle joints are framing joints that are constructed by dividing the thickness of the material into three. One third is removed from the centre of one member and from the outsides of the other member. In practice a mortice gauge would be used to mark out the joint if it was to be cut by hand.
The gauge would be set to the thickness of the mortice chisel to be used during construction. The illustrations below show a T bridle joint and a corner bridle joint.
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| T Bridle | Corner Bridle |
Before leaving this page, think of what you've just been reading, and test yourself with these questions.
[[ mm /f ][ Select the right housing joint for each join description: ][ Through housing ~ It doesn't matter if the joint is visible ][ Stopped housing ~ The appearance of the joint matters ][ Rebate housing ~ Have 2 contact surfaces and can be nailed 2 ways ][ Through housing joints are fine when the visual doesn't matter, stopped housing joints for when they do, and rebate housings are used for more joint strength. ]]
[[ mm /f ][ Select the right halving joint for each joint description: ][ T halving ~ Used in framing where mid-rails are required ][ Corner halving ~ Used in the corner of a frame ][ Cross halving ~ Used where the members of a frame intersect ][ Dovetail halving ~ Used when a T joint is in tension in one direction ][ T halving is used for mid-rails, corner halvings are used for the corners, cross halvings where they intersect, and a dovetail is preferred over a T to stop directional slipping. ]]
[[ sh ][ MORTICE & TENON JOINTS ]]Mortice and tenon joints are probably the most common of the framing joints used in the construction of furniture and wooden joinery such as doors and windows.
These joints are similar in construction to the bridle joint in that the thickness of the material is divided into three.
In practice, mortice and tenon joints that are to be cut by hand are marked out using a mortice gauge set to the thickness of the mortice chisel that will be used.
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Through mortice and tenon joints, as illustrated on the right, are used in framing for joining intermediate rails to a stile. The through mortice and tenon joint is generally used only when it is not an important design factor that the joint is visible on the edge of the frame. A stub mortice and tenon joint would be used where it is important that the end of the tenon is not visible in the finished job. |
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Stub mortice and tenon joints have a mortice depth of about two thirds to three quarters of the timber width. The illustrations on the right show that the joint is not visible on the edge of the frame. Stub mortice and tenon joints should always be used where this is an important design factor. |
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Wedged mortice and tenon joints are used where extra strength is required to resist forces that act to pull the joint apart. Wedged mortice and tenon joints, as illustrated on the left, are generally used in the construction of wooden doors and windows. Another advantage of wedged joints is that the cramps can be removed after the wedges have been glued and tapped in. The wedges will hold the joint together firmly until the glue dries. |
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Haunched mortice and tenon joints are used on the corner of a frame or the top of a chair or table leg. The mortice is kept a suitable distance in from the end and the tenon is cut to form a haunch as illustrated on the right. A haunch can be used with both stub and through tenons. A tapered haunch that is not visible on the edge also provides another design option. |
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Dovetail joints are generally used to construct box-like projects because the nature of the joint allows wide boards to be firmly joined at the corners without using nails or screws.
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The through dovetail or box dovetail, as illustrated on the right, is used where both pieces to be joined are the same thickness and it is not considered to be detrimental to the design if the joint is visible on both faces of the corner. Through dovetails that are visible in the finished job are sometimes used as a feature in the design of a box-like project. |
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The lapped dovetail is generally used in applications where the joint is not to be visible from one direction. Traditionally, lapped dovetails have been used to join the sides to the front in drawer construction. Lapped dovetails are often called drawer dovetails. |
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Dovetails and pins together comprise a dovetail joint as shown in the illustration at the top of the page. The dovetails are cut on one piece of timber and the pins on the other. Pins are smaller than the dovetails with the outer pins being smaller than the inner ones. A sliding bevel is generally used to mark out the dovetail angle. This angle is often referred to as the pitch of the dovetail. A satisfactory pitch for most dovetail joints is an angle of one in six. The illustration on the right shows the method most commonly used for marking out a dovetail joint. |
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The pins are marked and cut out, then the dovetails are scribed from the pins. This method is more convenient than cutting the dovetails first because there is more room to work in the dovetail sockets than the pin sockets.
Widening is a term often used to describe any method of joining two or more boards such as for a table top. There are numerous methods of widening, the most basic of which is the dowel method shown below.
The dowel method is similar to the dowelled butt joint used in framing. Several dowels may be used depending on the length of the boards being joined (or jointed).
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When two or more boards are to be joined, care must be taken to alternate the direction of the growth rings irrespective of the type of joint being used. The illustration on the right shows two boards correctly positioned for jointing. Wide boards tend to cup away from the heart when subjected to changes in atmospheric conditions. Alternating the growth rings will compensate for this movement and the wide jointed board will remain reasonably straight. |
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Before leaving this page, think of what you've just been reading, and test yourself with these questions.
[[ mm /f ][ Match the mortice and tenon joint to the description: ][ Through mortice and tenon ~ Used for joining intermediate rails to a stile ][ Stub mortice and tenon ~ Have a depth of two thirds the timber width and are not visible on the edge of the frame ][ Wedged mortice and tenon ~ Used where extra strength is required ][ Haunched mortice and tenon ~ Used on the corner of a frame or the top of a chair leg ][ Through joints are for joining rails to a stile, stub joints are not visible on the edge, wedged joints are used for extra strength, and haunched joints can be used in frame corners or table and chair legs. ]]
[[ tr /f ][ What dovetail joint should be used if you want to hide the joint from one direction of view? ][ lapped ][ The lapped dovetail can be used to hide the joint from one way but still keep the dovetail strength. ]]